doi: 10.1080/13825580903281308. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.95.2.144, Williams, J. M. G., Ellis, N. C., Tyers, C., Healy, H., Rose, G., and MacLeod, A. K. (1996). doi: 10.3758/MC.36.1.139, Loft, S., and Yeo, G. (2007). Fourth and final, by constructing memories about negative or stressful experiences and integrating these memories within a broader framework, autobiographical memory facilitates the process of coping with and resolving negative emotions (Fivush, 2011). First of all, there remains a lack of clarity about which subcomponent of memory coherence (i.e., context, chronology, or theme) is more or most important for the self. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2012.707214, Savine, A. C., Beck, S. M., Edwards, B. G., Chiew, K. S., and Braver, T. S. (2010). When trying to recall a specific event, an individual will start his search at the most general level of autobiographical memory and carry on to the level of event-specific knowledge. One could then utilize this previous experience for future occurrences However, creating coherent narratives about negative events can be challenging, since the related emotions can be overwhelming. Memory is essential to learning, but it also depends on learning because the information stored in one’s memory creates the basis for linking new knowledge by association. It can also affect our reputation and self-esteem, for example, one may be perceived as conscientious and well organized or as unreliable and unstructured. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2012.745877, Waters, T. E. A., Shallcross, J. F., and Fivush, R. (2013b). Finally, the narrative contains a subjective evaluation of the experience and ends with a resolution, which contributes to the thematic coherence of the narrative. In light of these considerations, we suggest that inducing importance by providing a social motive or by an absolute importance instruction (i.e., importance instructions without an explicit request to prioritize the prospective memory task) may operate by similar mechanisms as metacognitive strategies, that is, they enhance the prospective memory task-context associations to perform a prospective memory task without increasing strategic monitoring. How do these two characteristics of autobiographical memory relate to each other, both theoretically and empirically? Psychol. (1999). J. Exp. Belg. Child Psychol. In this paper, we first showed that for an important class of markets it is difficult to find core outcomes by decentralized dynamics. These criteria show that memory coherence goes beyond the mere structural aspects of autobiographical memories to include a qualification of the emotional representation of the events. For instance, when faced with a problem, being able to recall a specific past event facilitates problem solving since knowledge about past solutions can be transferred to the current situation. The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. (1999). As we discussed earlier, memory coherence enables creating meaning out of a negative or stressful event and regulating the related cognitions and emotions. Performance predictions improve prospective memory and influence retrieval experience. (2013). Consequently, we have to take into account differences regarding the type of prospective memory task, cognitive load, and potential processing overlaps. An individual’s life story is a subjective representation of his or her personal and unique development (Habermas and de Silveira, 2008). Meier, B., Matter, S., and Zimmermann, T. (2006a). Cogn. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.24.2.336, Marsh, R. L., Hicks, J. L., and Landau, D. L. (1998). Yet, there are some unresolved theoretical questions and inconsistencies, as well as methodological issues within this research field. Similar to memory specificity, memory coherence is related to well-being and effective functioning of the self in various ways. When individuals experience negative emotions or events, they have to regulate and resolve them in order to move on. By interpreting, evaluating, and connecting these single memories, the adolescent is able to form a coherent life story, which is a subjective representation of one’s personal development (Bluck and Habermas, 2000; Habermas and Bluck, 2000; Habermas and de Silveira, 2008; Fivush et al., 2011). Conversely, the work on memory coherence, which has a strong developmental background, would provide a broader framework in which the work on memory specificity could potentially be fitted. Merrill Palmer Q. Psychol. Why are you telling me that? skills and procedures) and declarative memory (e.g. Reduced goal specificity is associated with reduced memory specificity in depressed adults. Thus, the results of this study suggest that prospective memory performance can be improved by emphasizing the social importance of the task without increasing monitoring. 22, 495–537. J. The role of memory is maybe less visible, but still very important in following tasks: Making decisions, learning, planning, reading, problem solving, reading comprehension... Of course, we could make the list much more wider and bigger because, basically, whatever we do involves our memory. Strategy application disorder: the role of the frontal lobes in human multitasking. Psychol. Therefore, absolute importance instructions could also enhance prospective memory performance due to automatic retrieval and critically would not necessarily come at costs in the ongoing task (see Figure 2 for an illustration). Can. 125, 11–25. Penningroth, S. L., and Scott, W. D. (2007). Additionally, research has shown that overgeneral autobiographical memory is not a general characteristic of psychopathology. Consequently, in cognitive loaded situations strategic monitoring for prospective memory targets is impeded. A. Narrative construction is intact in episodic amnesia. The results showed that prospective memory task performance was better in the social motive condition compared to both the standard instruction condition and the reward condition. These factors might modulate the impact of task importance on prospective memory and ongoing task performance. Whereas patients suffering from episodic amnesia show deficits in recalling specific past events, they are still able to create coherent narratives if sufficient details are provided to them. “Cue-content overlap affects prospective memory performance,” in Annual Convention, Association for Psychological Society. As a first attempt to integrate memory specificity and memory coherence, we will situate them both within this theoretical model. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.12.010, Brewer, G. A., Knight, J. Two possible explanations can be formulated for these discrepancies. (2004) replicated the latter result with a very similar set-up. Memory 14, 872–889. Aging Neuropsychol. Received: 25 August 2017; Accepted: 11 December 2017;Published: 22 December 2017. We have identified several different importance manipulations such as providing rewards, relative importance instructions, absolute importance instructions, and providing a social motive. In this study, Einstein et al. This facilitates recovery and is beneficial for the effective functioning and well-being of the self. (2003). Behav. Psychol., 26 June 2014 Additionally, how can the integration of these two facilitate our understanding of the importance of autobiographical memory for the self? Moreover, these participants tried harder to remember the prospective memory target than the control group as indicated by self-report. People report feeling more intimate to the conservation partner and experiencing a more positive mood after conversations in which specific memories were shared (e.g., Pasupathi and Carstensen, 2003; Alea and Bluck, 2007). Smith, 2003; Smith and Bayen, 2004) or whether it occurs automatically (i.e., without monitoring costs; cf. Mother-child discourse about a child’s past behavior at 30-months and early socioemotional development at age 3. By creating a coherent narrative about the negative experience, the individual will be able to create meaning and come to some sort of resolution (e.g., the realization that the current experience is not as negative as originally thought, changing goals to better fit the current circumstances, etc. In what follows, we describe how memory coherence is associated with the self, but first we illustrate the concept a bit more with an example. Additionally, these children possess more effective coping styles and show less internalizing and externalizing symptoms (Sales and Fivush, 2005; Fivush and Sales, 2006). Lang. Meier, B., and Rey-Mermet, A. doi: 10.1016/S0885-2014(99)00012-X, Wenzel, A., Jackson, L. C., Brendle, J. R., and Pinna, K. (2003). Mot. Participants were either told that their results would offer information that was particularly important to the researcher (i.e., social motive condition), that they would receive course credits if they remembered to carry out the prospective memory task appropriately (i.e., reward condition), both of these instructions (social motive and reward condition) or none of this information (i.e., standard prospective memory condition). Finally, we will discuss the connection of task importance to motivation, to provide an alternative perspective to the field. When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored.Think of this as similar to changing your money into a different currency when you travel from one country to another. Res. However, in addition, an explicit reason is given why the intention is important. The age prospective memory paradox: young adults may not give their best outside of the lab. Nonetheless, this attempt at an integration suggests that there are a lot of open questions regarding the relationship between memory specificity, memory coherence, and the self that can and should be investigated in future research. Cogn. When goals collide: the interaction between prospective memory and task switching. 8, 3012 Bern, Switzerland e-mail: beat.meier@psy.unibe.ch, Front. Mem. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.107.2.261, Conway, M. A., Singer, J. Cognitive vulnerability in patients with bipolar disorder. Memory 17, 732–741. 48, 614–625. 36, 449–451. In laboratory research, the methods to produce importance can be considered as “planning guidelines.” In daily life, the different importance of our multiple intentions allow us to prioritize and as a consequence to flexibly select our future goals. This will provide more insight about how they might relate to each other and to the self, which can guide future research. Overgeneral autobiographical memory as a predictor of the course of depression: a meta-analysis. Thus, successfully remembering of an important intention in such situations requires an intentional or explicit prioritizing of the prospective memory task. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02340.x, Scott, J., Stanton, B., Garland, A., and Ferrier, I. N. (2000). As unbelievable as it sounds, ultra-Orthodox Jews committed the entire Babylonian Talmud—all 5,422 pages of it—to memory. Cogn. In this article, we give a critical overview of memory specificity and memory coherence and their relation to the self. This supports the assumption that automatic retrieval can occur due to an enhanced association between a prospective memory target and the prospective memory task (Altgassen et al., 2010; Brandimonte et al., 2010). Br. 133, 122–148. Psychol. Although the Self-Memory System is just one of many available theoretical models, we have chosen this model because it offers an interesting theoretical framework to look at how memory specificity and memory coherence could potentially be integrated. 41, 67–78. Am. Behav. This is particularly important when faced with negative or stressful experiences. doi: 10.1037/a0015633, Jelinek, L., Stockbauer, C., Randjbar, S., Kellner, M., Ehring, T., and Moritz, S. (2010). Dark gray fields show enhanced prospective memory task performance or ongoing task costs, light gray fields show no changes in prospective memory task performance or ongoing task costs and white fields show knowledge gaps. Cognit. A., Griffith, J. W., and Mineka, S. (2010). Ageing Res. Int. Moreover, more of them reported having used external reminders in order to remember the prospective memory task. This is particularly important when faced with negative or stressful experiences, since such experiences can make the individual vulnerable for developing various psychological problems (e.g., Cole et al., 1990; Kessler, 1997; Kendler et al., 2003). Disord. 42, 613–626. Aging 18, 430–442. 35, 259–272. Enhancement of cognitive control by approach and avoidance motivational states. The association between memory coherence and PTSD has also been topic of intense debate over the past few years (see Brewin, 2016; Rubin et al., 2016a,b). In two experiments, we investigated the possibility that susceptibility to proactive interference (PI) affects performance on memory span measures. Are older adults more social than younger adults? Articles. 65, 12–18. Gerontology 60, 73–78. (2010). doi: 10.1207/s15327663jcp0802_02, Kvavilashvili, L. (1987). Overgeneral autobiographical memory predicts higher prospective levels of depressive symptoms and intrusions in borderline patients. Both domains have their own strengths and weaknesses, and both could potentially benefit from integration by taking advantage of the other’s strengths. Clin. Typically, we have more than one active intention and often, one intention is more important than another one. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493, Gordon, B. In contrast, for participants in the control group forgetting was much more likely when an interesting activity was performed. Consider how you would know anything without memory. 18, 140–157. Structural correlates of prospective memory. J. Genet. Bull. As research on this topic has shown, narratives about negative events are generally more coherent than narratives about positive or neutral events (Fivush et al., 2008). Through the process of autobiographical reasoning (i.e., interpreting, evaluating, and integrating different specific personal experiences that are believed to be significant to understand who one is), single narratives will be connected and integrated into an overall life story (Habermas and Bluck, 2000; Habermas and de Silveira, 2008). The other half, the control group, was not given this additional information. There is no explicit reason to change resource allocation policies to the prospective memory task. However, the relationship between different importance manipulations and motivation needs further investigation to disentangle the underlying mechanisms of task importance (see also Penningroth and Scott, 2007, for a similar assumption). This is the focus of the current study. J. Abnorm. As we mentioned earlier, creating a stable and continuous sense of self is key to a healthy identity development, which is an important developmental task during adolescence (Erikson, 1968; McAdams, 1985). By using words like ‘first,’ ‘then’ and ‘afterward,’ the sequence of the events becomes clear. Smith and Bayen, 2004). Our review shows that, in general, prospective memory performance is enhanced by importance and that ongoing task costs show a differential pattern for the different importance manipulations. 167, 179–188. Additionally, there seems to be a negative association between identity confusion and memory specificity in patients with Borderline Personality Disorder (Van den Broeck, 2014), and patients with Dissociative Identity Disorder show signs of overgeneral autobiographical memory as well (Huntjens et al., 2014). Instead of only focusing on specificity, the training could target overall memory coherence. Psychol. Psychol. 36, 149–156. Through autobiographical reasoning, specific and coherent memories will be connected and integrated into a coherent life story schema. We will conclude this article by suggesting some new and exciting research possibilities and by explaining how both research fields could benefit from integration in future research. However, this needs also further investigations. If you stuck a pin into any of its sixty-three sections, they could recite every word on the page. Intrinsic motivation refers to an inherent interest in performing a particular task. Thus, intrinsic motivation may enable the automatic retrieval of a prospective memory task and therefore importance manipulations must not necessarily be accompanied by a cost in the ongoing task performance (e.g., Penningroth and Scott, 2007). A child's memory is important in building relational awareness, establishing patterns of recognition for people and events, and for transforming information into knowledge that facilitates problem solving at a later time. So, the act of sharing personal information in itself appears to be more important for creating close relationships with others than the nature (specific versus general) of the information. One of the criteria to categorize a memory as specific according to the AMT, is that the memory has to consist of one particular event that happened at a particular time and place (Williams and Broadbent, 1986). doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2012.09.003, Meier, B., von Wartburg, P., Matter, S., Rothen, N., and Reber, R. (2011). More than three decennia of research on memory specificity has demonstrated the important role memory specificity plays in psychopathology and the mechanisms that underlie this relationship. The life story schema. CiteScore: 5.3 ℹ CiteScore: 2019: 5.3 CiteScore measures the average citations received per peer-reviewed document published in this title. Depress. Child Psychol. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.105.4.609, Goddard, L., Dritschel, B., and Burton, A. 12, 424–462. 76, 219–230. doi: 10.1007/s004269900006, Cicogna, P. C., and Nigro, G. (1998). Sch. Research on the association between memory coherence and internalizing symptoms yielded inconsistent findings. The individual will, for example, situate the event in his life story and describe the precursors and the consequences of the event, both short and long term. (2006). Then, we will link both features of autobiographical memory by describing some important similarities and by formulating hypotheses about how they might relate to each other. Res. Einstein and McDaniel, 2005). Psychol. Characteristics and organization of the worst moment of trauma memories in posttraumatic stress disorder. Third, memories about past personal experiences guide our current and future behavior. Our motivational account supports this assumption. The development of memory. (2012). In contrast, automatic retrieval of an intention without ongoing task costs is possible, if, for example, a prospective memory target is distinctive or with high processing overlaps (e.g., for focal cues). Cogn. Transfer appropriate processing for prospective memory tests. Moreover, we suggest that the type of motivation is directly related to potential changes in attention allocation policies. Not everything … The importance of an intention is based on values, desires, goals, and their predicted consequences (cf. This example illustrates that even a very important intention, that is, remember to book the church for the own wedding can fail. The Importance of Translation Memory. Cogn. McDaniel and Einstein, 2000; Meier et al., 2006b). Additionally, given the similarities between memory specificity and contextual coherence, it is possible that memory specificity in fact is a subcomponent of memory coherence. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. One could then utilize this previous experience for future occurrences. They threw a big party at their house. For the latter, participants were told to write down every product they associated with a certain brand. Particularly, in their second experiment, the prospective memory targets were defined as words that contained either the letter g or q (i.e., a non-focal target) rather than as a specific word (i.e., a focal target, cf. As we mentioned earlier, being able to create a coherent overall life story is key to a healthy identity development. Merrill Palmer Q. Memory 24, 1302–1310. Rev. The memory specificity literature is therefore originally based upon one particular paradigm instead of theoretical considerations. Memory specificity supports effective functioning of the self by guiding current and future behavior. Moreover, the impact of the importance manipulation was stronger when ongoing task load was increased by an additional auditory digit detection task. The prospective memory task was kept as simple as possible and involved just pressing a key on the computer keyboard when a particular event occurred (e.g., the presentation of a specific word on the computer screen). The first word was used as the prospective memory target and the prospective memory task was to press a specific key and to type the second word of the word-pair whenever a prospective memory target word occurred. J. Exp. 21, 1091–1111. Clin. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. doi: 10.1177/0956797613481233, McFarland, C. P., and Glisky, E. L. (2011). Coherence of personal narratives across the lifespan: a multidimensional model and coding method. The prospective memory task was to send a letter to the researcher on 8 different days over a period of 8 weeks. 123, 419–428. Finally, event-specific knowledge refers to perceptual and sensory-rich information about single personal experiences (e.g., my thesis defense). Gender specific characteristics of 5-year-olds’ play narratives and associations with behavior ratings. This can be taken as further evidence that importance effects are based on different routes toward remembering which may be driven by extrinsic or intrinsic motivation. Memory 9, 1–11. The older adults showed similar prospective memory performance as younger adults when the prospective memory task was emphasized, but the reduction of the age-effect came at an increased monitoring cost for older adults. Multiple processes in prospective memory retrieval: factors determining monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval. This notion of time and place forms the basis of contextual coherence (see Reese et al., 2011). doi: 10.3758/MC.36.4.716, McDaniel, M. A., Lamontagne, P., Beck, S. M., Scullin, M. K., and Braver, T. S. (2013). We will make a first attempt at a theoretical integration of memory specificity and memory coherence by situating them in the Self-Memory System of Conway and Pleydell-Pearce. Furthermore, enhancing prospective memory performance due to an importance manipulation sometimes resulted in costs for the ongoing task (e.g., Loft and Yeo, 2007; Smith and Hunt, 2014), but in a few studies, there was no indication for costs (e.g., Brandimonte et al., 2010). Within the Self-Memory System, personal memories are stored across four different hierarchical layers going from abstract and general to concrete and specific (i.e., life story schema, lifetime periods, general events, and event-specific knowledge). For example, Memory Specificity Training (MEST) has been shown to be effective in decreasing depressive symptoms (Raes et al., 2009). 39, 1487–1495. The results showed that importance improved prospective memory performance, but caused higher monitoring costs. In a similar vein, Guajardo and Best (2000) used a controlled computer-based prospective memory task to investigate the influence of a reward on prospective memory performance in preschoolers. 24, 336–349. The organization and content of trauma memories in survivors of road traffic accidents. doi: 10.1037//0021-843X.104.4.585, Laible, D. (2004). Rev. The purpose of this article is to review the literature on the impact of importance in prospective memory research. Incentive effects on event-based prospective memory performance in children and adolescents with traumatic brain injury. Ther. Brandimonte et al. Cognit. McAdams, D. P. (2001). (2004). When referring to a previous break-up and stating when this took place relative to the anniversary, the individual places the experience within a broader timeframe, making the narrative chronologically coherent. Responsible behavior: the importance of social cognition and emotion. Specificity and coherence both increase with age due to the development of a similar skillset that supports specificity and coherence, such as overall verbal abilities, notion of time and place, perspective taking, memory storage capacity, and so on (Howe and Courage, 1997; O’Carroll et al., 2006; Reese et al., 2011). By autobiographical reasoning, the adolescent will link together different specific memories that are unique to the individual and differentiates him- or herself from others. In the latter, they were told that they were doing the experimenter a favor when they would remember to press the key after the 2 min time-periods. Cognit. Role of autobiographical memory in social problem solving and depression. Emot. Power and Intimacy. This shows how memory specificity, memory coherence, and global life story coherence interact to form a stable sense of self. 45, 305–312. Research has shown that patients who suffer from depression or PTSD have more difficulty recalling specific memories following emotional cues than healthy controls. Res. doi: 10.1521/scpq.18.2.140.21857. Dev. Affect. So, the functional avoidance mechanism could be seen as a means of affect regulation that could be beneficial in the short term, but maladaptive over time. To explain the importance of the specificity of autobiographical memories for the self, we consecutively describe the way memory specificity is involved in these four functions. This has been most clearly shown in adults for procedural memory (i.e. Behav. Psychol. The self and autobiographical memory: correspondence and coherence. Can. doi: 10.1037/a0033722, Brewin, C. R. (2016). doi: 10.1080/15248372.2011.587854, Ridout, N., Matharu, M., Sanders, E., and Wallis, D. J. Lifetime periods represent certain periods in a person’s life with a clear beginning and ending that have distinctive thematic features (e.g., my time at the University of Leuven). Influence of importance of intention on prospective memory performance. Psychol. Psychol. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Different mechanisms can explain the development of overgeneral autobiographical memory. Before we describe the role of autobiographical memory for the self in more detail, we will take a closer look at how the self can be conceptualized. However, in most of these studies monitoring costs were not measured, or in one study only a subjective rating was used (Krishnan and Shapiro, 1999). Future research should therefore examine how memory coherence relates to the presence of depressive versus anxiety-related symptoms by using specific instruments instead of broadband screening questionnaires that do not differentiate between different types of internalizing symptoms. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). McDaniel, M. A., Einstein, G. O., and Rendell, P. G. (2008a). |, A Motivational Account of Importance Manipulations, http://www.frontiersin.org/journal/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00657/abstract, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). In Experiment 2, participants were instructed for an event-based task. Appl. Accessing one memory of a general event triggers others that are comprised within the same or related clusters. , Belcher, J. M. G., O ’ Loughlin, S., and McDaniel, M.,,! Even if one changes, these participants tried harder to articles on the importance of memory measures of.. 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