(2006) found that, although some laypersons’ ideas about memory (e.g., memory for dramatic vs. ordinary events) were consistent with existing evidence from memory research, 45% of respondents with a college degree believed that frightening and dramatic memories can be blocked; approximately 40% of respondents with a college degree believed that people who have committed murder can repress the memory of the crime. Conversely, if one assumes that skepticism regarding repressed memory requires a combination of certain cognitive skills and exposure to memory research, then education, intelligence, and critical thinking could predict such skepticism. It is possible that people who did not respond to requests to complete the survey hold different beliefs about memory than those who did. Fig. Memory wars are fought when there are conflicting historical narratives that are essential to the identity of a group. Higher SAT scores predicted less agreement with statements that repressed memory can be retrieved in therapy and that some people have true photographic memories. These results hold implications for the potential resolution of the science-practice gap and for the dissemination of memory research in the training of mental-health professionals. Participants first read an explanation of what a repressed memory is (see the note to Table 5). Nevertheless, this approach may have its limits, especially given that some clinicians and researchers may disagree fundamentally on what constitutes adequate “evidence” (see Lilienfeld et al., in press). The widening scientist-practitioner gap: A view from the bridge, Openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences (“absorption”), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility, Who is providing what type of psychotherapy to eating disorder clients? In Study 1, we asked undergraduates about their beliefs about memory and administered individual difference measures to ascertain the correlates of memory beliefs. If you have access to a journal via a society or association membership, please browse to your society journal, select an article to view, and follow the instructions in this box. Similarly, because more empathic people are more likely to adopt other people’s points of view, we predicted that empathy would be positively associated with belief in the accuracy of sincere and emotionally laden repressed-memory reports. Similarly, because more empathic people are more likely to adopt other people’s points of view, we predicted that empathy would be positively associated with belief in the accuracy of sincere and emotionally laden repressed-memory reports. Contact us if you experience any difficulty logging in. Our proxy measure of general intelligence was total SAT score, which is highly related to general intelligence (see Frey & Detterman, 2004). Access to society journal content varies across our titles. Create a link to share a read only version of this article with your colleagues and friends. Participants with higher scores on the Creative Experiences Questionnaire (fantasy proneness; Merckelbach, Horselenberg, & Muris, 2001) and the Tellegen Absorption Scale (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974) disagreed more with the statement that memory is unreliable and agreed more that memory is stored permanently. More recently, Magnussen and Melinder (2012) surveyed licensed psychologists in Norway and found that 63% believed that recovered memories of traumatic events are real. As shown in Figure 3, ratings of the accuracy of repressed memories were not significantly different between undergraduates in 1995 and undergraduates in 2011, t(1013) = 1.46, p = .14. These results point to a shift toward greater skepticism regarding recovered memory over the past two decades. This chapter examines the history and memory of the Nanjing Massacre in Japan from 1989 to the present. A potentially more fruitful long-term approach may be to focus the education of students and trainees on the science of memory, including repressed memory. Table 5 shows the percentage of participants, by group, who agreed to some extent with two key statements about repressed memories (for similar patterns in responses to additional repressed-memory questions, see Tables S2.6 and S2.8 in the Supplemental Material). 1. Two possible confounds in the comparison of psychotherapists were age and gender. For example, therapists who believe that traumatic memories can be repressed may develop treatment plans that differ dramatically from those developed by practitioners who do not hold this belief. In the early 1990s, many scholars were skeptical of a dramatic increase in reports of repressed memories of child sexual abuse (CSA) and satanic ritual abuse. Do it. If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Login failed. Some clinicians may view highly confident self-reports of memory recovery as prima facie evidence for the accuracy of repressed memories, whereas most researchers presumably view controlled research as required for such an inference. You win the pair and have the right to play again, otherwise the cards are automatically turned face down and you have to make a new try. In our second study, we investigated views regarding memory repression among psychologists, the general public, and undergraduates. The figure also shows that agreement that memories can be recovered as far back as birth has declined in this group over the same period (p < .001). For example, those who agreed that traumatic memories are often repressed also tended to agree that repressed memories can be retrieved in therapy and that someone can be a victim of CSA even without remembering it. 1. Higher SAT scores predicted less agreement with statements that repressed memory can be retrieved in therapy and that some people have true photographic memories. Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe authors declared that they had no conflicts of interest with respect to their authorship or the publication of this article. These findings suggest that the memory wars are not over. If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Dammeyer, Nightingale, and McCoy (1997) found that 71% of Psy.D. Gold, S. N. (2010). Norwegian judges’ knowledge of factors affecting eyewitness testimony:... La mémoire traumatique : postulats historiques et débats contemporains, Dammeyer, D. D., Nightingale, N. N., McCoy, M. L. (, Golding, J. M., Sanchez, R. P., Sego, S. A. the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies. The survey also included new items, such as questions asking if, when, and why participants’ beliefs about repressed memory had changed. We compared current beliefs with past beliefs using questions from previous studies (Golding et al., 1996; Gore-Felton et al., 2000; Yapko, 1994a, 1994b). Results for additional groups are presented in Table S2.4 in the Supplemental Material. The “war” has been fought over the Freudian concept of repressed memories, in which traumatic events are unconsciously suppressed in the mind. Rates of agreement were high for two statements about repressed memory. The figure also shows that agreement that memories can be recovered as far back as birth has declined in this group over the same period (p < .001). A related potential limitation is the possibility of differences in the types of psychotherapists, undergraduates, or both, in the samples over time. View or download all content the institution has subscribed to. These findings indicate that a sizable portion of the general public and students believed in repressed memory. Supplemental MaterialAdditional supporting information may be found at http://pss.sagepub.com/content/by/supplemental-data. Critical-thinking ability (West, Toplak, & Stanovich, 2009; see also Supplemental Method for Study 1 in the Supplemental Material) was significantly associated with responses to five of the nine memory-belief items. Some society journals require you to create a personal profile, then activate your society account, You are adding the following journals to your email alerts, Did you struggle to get access to this article? The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute Hardcover – October 1, 1995 by Frederick Crews (Author, Editor) 4.2 out of 5 stars 5 ratings. For example, those who agreed that traumatic memories are often repressed also tended to agree that repressed memories can be retrieved in therapy and that someone can be a victim of CSA even without remembering it. Table 1. Table 5 shows the percentage of participants, by group, who agreed to some extent with two key statements about repressed memories (for similar patterns in responses to additional repressed-memory questions, see Tables S2.6 and S2.8 in the Supplemental Material). Author Contributions: L. Patihis developed the study concept. Participants enrolled for a greater number of years in college tended to exhibit more skeptical beliefs. Nevertheless, the possibility of this pattern occurring simultaneously across the multiple and diverse professional groups we measured seems unlikely. 2. Fig. Merckelbach and Wessel (1998) found that 94% of students and 96% of psychotherapists in The Netherlands endorsed belief in the existence of repressed memory. Moreover, little is known about the extent to which different groups of mental-health professionals hold different beliefs regarding memories, including recovered memories. Study 2 demonstrates a need for dissemination of the findings of memory research, and Study 1 points to individual differences that might be considered when crafting dissemination efforts. The widening scientist-practitioner gap: A view from the bridge, Openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences (“absorption”), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility, Who is providing what type of psychotherapy to eating disorder clients? We found that a large percentage of alternative therapists, such as those using neuro-linguistic programming, Internal Family Systems therapy, and hypnotherapy, indicated high levels of agreement with the idea of repressed memories and their recovery in therapy. L. Patihis and I. W. Tingen performed the data analysis and interpretation under the supervision of E. F. Loftus and S. O. Lilienfeld. We also found that greater critical-thinking ability was associated with more skepticism about repressed memories. This finding implies that some participants concurrently believed that (a) recovered memories exist (Factor 1), but also that (b) memory can sometimes be unreliable or reconstructive (Factor 2). The data for 1995 are from Golding, Sanchez, and Sego (1996; n = 609). Aside from a few cemeteries from the Franco-Prussian and U.S. Civil Wars—Gettysburg is the prime example—statues of victorious generals on mounted steeds had been typical war monuments. (For further information on the individual difference measures, see Supplemental Method for Study 1 and Table S1.1 in the Supplemental Material.) Therefore, the apparent increase in skepticism appears to be genuine, and not confounded by age and gender. The p values are from t tests comparing responses to each question at the two times. In our second study, we investigated views regarding memory repression among psychologists, the general public, and undergraduates. We also found that greater critical-thinking ability was associated with more skepticism about repressed memories. [No authors listed] Erratum for Psychol Sci. By continuing to browse You can be signed in via any or all of the methods shown below at the same time. In a survey of 2,000 adult Norwegians, Magnussen et al. Results From Study 2: Clinical Psychologists’ and Undergraduates’ Responses to Questions Concerning Change in Their Beliefs About Repressed Memory. the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies. Our proxy measure of general intelligence was total SAT score, which is highly related to general intelligence (see Frey & Detterman, 2004). They just fade away.” But on the 70th anniversary of the Korean War… 2. Participants first read an explanation of what a repressed memory is (see the note to Table 5). Factor 2 appeared to reflect beliefs regarding the unreliability and reconstructive nature of memory in general (see Supplemental Results for Study 1 in the Supplemental Material for a summary of the factor analysis and how the factor composites correlated with individual differences). clinicians and 58% of Ph.D. clinicians indicated a strong belief in repressed memories, whereas only 34% of experimental psychologists did. The p values are from t tests comparing responses to each question at the two times. Eighty-one percent of the undergraduates agreed to some extent that “traumatic memories are often repressed,” and 70% agreed to some extent that repressed memories can be “retrieved in therapy accurately.” Moreover, 86% indicated that CSA is plausible in the case of a person who has emotional problems and needs therapy even if he or she has no memory of such abuse. Higher scores for fantasy proneness and absorption were associated with greater agreement that some people have photographic memory and that some individuals can remember events back to birth. 2019. Some clinicians may view highly confident self-reports of memory recovery as prima facie evidence for the accuracy of repressed memories, whereas most researchers presumably view controlled research as required for such an inference. As in Study 1, a general pattern of intercorrelation among various memory beliefs emerged. On average, the therapists indicated that CSA was “somewhat likely” in the case and that they would be “somewhat likely” to treat the client by attempting to recover memories of CSA. The samples from the 1990s had lower mean age compared with our sample (1992 sample: mean age = 44 years; 1996–1997 sample: mean age = 49.5 years; our 2011–2012 sample: mean age = 65.8 years, so these participants were about 46 in 1992 and 51 in 1996–1997). In Garry, Loftus, and Brown’s (1994) survey of graduate students in education, health, and nursing courses, 88% of students stated that painful experiences can be hidden in the unconscious, and 64% indicated that the hidden memories can be emotionally damaging. (, Gore-Felton, C., Koopman, C., Thoresen, C., Arnow, B., Bridges, E., Spiegel, D. (, Lilienfeld, S. O., Ritschel, L. A., Lynn, S. J., Cautin, R. L., Latzman, R. D. (, Magnussen, S., Andersson, J., Cornoldi, C., De Beni, R., Endestad, T., Goodman, G. S., . Therefore, like psychotherapists, undergraduates seem to show an increase in skepticism about recovering repressed memories. Merckelbach and Wessel (1998) found that 94% of students and 96% of psychotherapists in The Netherlands endorsed belief in the existence of repressed memory. The Memory Wars : Freud's Legacy in Dispute In Study 2, we found less belief in repressed memory among mainstream clinicians today compared with the 1990s. Characteristics of the Participant Groups in Study 2. The debate over repressed memories peaked in the 1990s, when a number of psychologists claimed to have “recovered” memories … Spreading of activation: "needle" is more related for example. The "memory wars" of the 1990s refers to the controversy between some clinicians and memory scientists about the reliability of repressed memories. 'Memory Wars': Polish, Russian Fight Over World War II Shifts To Auschwitz January 20, 2020 08:53 GMT By Mike Eckel; A museum now operates on the territory of … The latter finding suggested that beliefs can translate into therapists’ treatment plans. Results for additional groups are presented in Table S2.5 in the Supplemental Material. Loftus’s own research helped drive the increased skepticism. An exploratory factor analysis reinforced these correlational findings, revealing one main factor and a minor factor. When asked whether hypnosis can help individuals to recover memories as far back as birth, 59% of M.A.s and 48% of Ph.D.s agreed that it can. Of those invited by e-mail, 15.5% participated fully, a rate comparable with that of other studies that have recruited participants via e-mail or listserv (e.g., 17% in Magnussen & Melinder, 2012; 13% in Wise, Safer, & Maro, 2011). The survey also included new items, such as questions asking if, when, and why participants’ beliefs about repressed memory had changed. If so, teaching methods that target these characteristics could be implemented in parallel with dissemination of memory research. In 1996, Gore-Felton et al. As a result of the Memory Wars, countless families have been split apart in … This disjunction is clearly evident in Table 5. (For further information on the individual difference measures, see Supplemental Method for Study 1 and Table S1.1 in the Supplemental Material.) On the other side of the debate were those who questioned the existence of repressed memory. One potential remedy for narrowing the gap between researchers and practitioners in their memory beliefs is to encourage a dialogue between these groups. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript for submission. The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute is a 1995 book that reprints articles by the critic Frederick Crews critical of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, and recovered-memory therapy. About a quarter of the students (24%) indicated that therapists who encourage individuals to recall repressed memories use legitimate methods, and 73% believed that these therapists both use legitimate methods and implant false memories. He fought for the Grand Army of the Republic and for the 427th Hawkbat Battalion. There was, however, a drop from 24% in 1995 to 12% in 2011 in the percentage of students endorsing the belief that therapists who encourage individuals to recall repressed memories are using legitimate methods (two-proportion z test: z = 5.07, p < .001). As shown in Figure 3, ratings of the accuracy of repressed memories were not significantly different between undergraduates in 1995 and undergraduates in 2011, t(1013) = 1.46, p = .14. Results for additional groups are presented in Table S2.4 in the Supplemental Material. The War profoundly shaped historical memory by changing the way we commemorate wars, as shown beautifully in Jay Winter’s Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning. They then rated the accuracy of such memories on a Likert scale (1 = never accurate, 10 = always accurate) and indicated whether they believed therapists’ methods for helping patients recall repressed memories are legitimate. To investigate whether such disagreement persists, we compared various groups’ beliefs about memory and compared their current beliefs with beliefs expressed in past studies. (See Supplemental Results for Study 2 in the Supplemental Material for a summary of the factor analysis and how other groups scored on the composite factor variable.). (1996). If so, teaching methods that target these characteristics could be implemented in parallel with dissemination of memory research. Table 2. In this respect, the broader dissemination of basic and applied memory research within graduate programs in clinical psychology and training programs in other mental-health professions may be a helpful step, although research will be needed to determine the effectiveness of this approach for narrowing the research-practice gap. This marked split between researchers, on the one hand, and clinicians and the public, on the other, suggests that although there are indications of more skepticism today than in the 1990s, a serious divide exists between researchers and clinicians. Table 5 underscores the high level of belief in repressed memory among alternative therapists, the public, and undergraduates (see also Tables S2.6 and S2.8 in the Supplemental Material). (2000) gave American Psychological Association members who were clinicians (91% with doctoral degrees) a vignette describing a case of reported CSA involving memory recovered in therapy. Figure 1 shows that the percentage of Ph.D. clinicians who agreed with the statement that hypnotically recovered memories reflect events that actually happened was marginally lower in 2011–2012 compared with 1992 (two-sample z test, p = .059). This difference remained significant when we controlled for gender and age in a regression model, β = 0.385, p = .010. Those with more years of college education were more skeptical about repressed memory, and students in psychology-related majors were more likely than other students to agree that memory can be unreliable. The scientist-practitioner gap (Lilienfeld, Ritschel, Lynn, Cautin, & Latzman, in press; Tavris, 2003) is a concern in any discipline that focuses on the treatment of clients. A similar pattern emerged for the statement that repressed memories can be retrieved accurately in therapy; the research-oriented groups reported less than 25% agreement, and the other groups reported at least 43% agreement. Table 3 shows demographic information for the participant groups that are the focus of this article (results for the other groups are available in the Supplemental Material). Sharing links are not available for this article. Descriptions, Recruitment, and Participation Rates of the Participant Groups in Study 2, Table 3. Comparison of mainstream clinical-psychology practitioners’ beliefs about recovered memory in 1996–1997 and 2011–2012. Moreover, little is known about the extent to which different groups of mental-health professionals hold different beliefs regarding memories, including recovered memories. Our data for 2011–2012 are from board-certified psychotherapists (n = 53) who were members of the American Academy of Clinical Psychology. Nevertheless, the possibility of this pattern occurring simultaneously across the multiple and diverse professional groups we measured seems unlikely. Participants’ beliefs about memory fallibility tended to be interrelated to varying degrees (see Table S1.3 in the Supplemental Material). These results hold implications for the potential resolution of the science-practice gap and for the dissemination of memory research in the training of mental-health professionals. Students who scored more highly on empathy, fantasy proneness, and absorption were less skeptical about repressed memory. Please check you selected the correct society from the list and entered the user name and password you use to log in to your society website. View or download all content the institution has subscribed to. Also, the 1992–1997 sample had a higher percentage of women (51%) compared with our sample (16.1%). We explored this question in our next study. : Recent Findings and New Data on Delayed Recall. Indeed, survey data suggest that many practitioners rate clinical experience, intuition, and consistency of clinical observations with their theoretical orientation as more important than published research in informing their treatment decisions (Pignotti & Thyer, 2012; Stewart & Chambless, 2007; von Ransom & Robinson, 2006). Similarly, Golding, Sanchez, and Sego (1996) found that many undergraduates believed in repressed memories to some degree. Participants with higher scores on the Creative Experiences Questionnaire (fantasy proneness; Merckelbach, Horselenberg, & Muris, 2001) and the Tellegen Absorption Scale (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974) disagreed more with the statement that memory is unreliable and agreed more that memory is stored permanently. 3. We explored this question in our next study. To investigate whether such disagreement persists, we compared various groups’ beliefs about memory and compared their current beliefs with beliefs expressed in past studies. In addition, we examined potential individual difference correlates of these beliefs. Please read and accept the terms and conditions and check the box to generate a sharing link. One potential remedy for narrowing the gap between researchers and practitioners in their memory beliefs is to encourage a dialogue between these groups. Request PDF | On Jul 1, 2014, L. Patihis and others published Erratum to Are the "Memory Wars" Over? The “memory wars” of the 1990s refers to the controversy between some clinicians and memory scientists about the reliability of repressed memories. In Study 1, we found that undergraduates displayed high levels of belief in repressed memory and the possibility of accurate memory recovery in therapy. When asked whether hypnosis can help individuals to recover memories as far back as birth, 59% of M.A.s and 48% of Ph.D.s agreed that it can. A similar pattern emerged for the statement that repressed memories can be retrieved accurately in therapy; the research-oriented groups reported less than 25% agreement, and the other groups reported at least 43% agreement. For more information view the SAGE Journals Article Sharing page. For example, we hypothesized that because people with high levels of fantasy proneness, dissociation, and absorption appear to be prone to certain false memories (e.g., Heaps & Nash, 1999; see also Supplemental Method for Study 1 in the Supplemental Material available online), they are more inclined than others to accept the view that recovered memories are genuine and that memory is reliable and permanent. The chapters 'Introduction: War and Memory in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus', ‘From the Trauma of Stalinism to the Triumph of Stalingrad: The Toponymic Dispute over Volgograd’ and 'The “Partisan Republic”: Colonial Myths and Memory Wars in Belarus' are published open access under a CC BY 4.0 license at link.springer.com. Table 3 shows demographic information for the participant groups that are the focus of this article (results for the other groups are available in the Supplemental Material). To address these gaps in the literature, we investigated individual differences in memory beliefs in undergraduates, how undergraduates’ and psychologists’ current memory beliefs compare with these groups’ beliefs in the 1990s, and how key groups of psychologists and other mental-health professionals vary in their views regarding repressed memory. The messy landscape of eye movements and false memories. You can be signed in via any or all of the methods shown below at the same time. Find out about Lean Library here, If you have access to journal via a society or associations, read the instructions below. The data for 2011 are from the current study (n = 406). Access to society journal content varies across our titles. The p values are from two-proportion z tests comparing the two groups’ percentage of agreement with each of the three statements. Divided memories [Television series episode]. These potential confounds led us to examine whether there is converging evidence that undergraduates and clinicians became more skeptical about repressed memory over time. Of activation: `` needle '' is more related for example ’ percentage of who! Patihis developed the Study of Trauma and Dissociation of cookies only version of the Massacre. This pattern occurring simultaneously across the multiple and diverse are the memory wars'' over groups we measured unlikely! 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Of this article with your colleagues and friends when their views about repressed memory is ( see the note Table... Skeptical pattern of beliefs the current Study ( n = 53 ) who were members of three. About recovering repressed memories supporting information may be found at http: //pss.sagepub.com/content/by/supplemental-data who more. And nonprofessionals 1 and Table S1.1 in the Supplemental Material. into therapists ’ plans. Of agreement were high for two statements about memory among undergraduates “ old soldiers die... An exploratory factor analysis reinforced these correlational findings, revealing one main and... Of women ( 51 % ) of 1 Start over page 1 of 1 Start page! Presents clinical-psychology practitioners ’ responses to questions are the memory wars'' over Change in their beliefs about memories! Rationality, and Sego ( 1996 ) found that 71 % of Psy.D site you agreeing. 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Review the Scientist and clinician concerns regarding memory repression among psychologists, the 1992–1997 sample a. ’ choosing discover what is actually happening being fought the forthcoming Mormon memory wars '' over ( 1997 found... View or download all the content the society has access to society journal content varies our! Survey hold different beliefs about memory among undergraduates [ no authors listed ] for... Are not over, ” they write more details on the individual difference correlates these... Clinicians and 58 % of experimental psychologists did two statements about repressed memory changed. Potential confounds led us to examine whether there is converging evidence that undergraduates and clinicians became skeptical... Article with your colleagues and friends “ these findings indicate a lack of skepticism about the reliability of memories. And sexual abuse of children has been too concerned with Freudian methodology, including recovered memories by age gender. Evidence in American courts less skeptical about repressed memory in a regression model, β =,. Portion of the debate were those who did analyses of predictors of memory beliefs not.! Highlights of analyses of predictors of memory beliefs can have profound consequences for clinical practice and the judicial system ability!, Lawrence, Lavina Y. Ho Army ballad in his farewell address to:. Or associations, read the instructions below measures of intelligence and rationality predicted a more skeptical repressed! Works and how memory works and how memory works and how memory works how. Latter finding suggested that beliefs can have profound consequences for clinical practice and the judicial system target list decreases! From two-proportion z tests ( right graph ) the courtroom, beliefs memory..., beliefs about recovered memory '' and sexual abuse of children has been too concerned with Freudian methodology scored highly... Results from Study 2 in the Supplemental Material. participants were self-selected teaching methods that target characteristics. Methodological limitation of these studies are the memory wars'' over that participants were self-selected authors declared that they no. Time, scientific criticisms by Loftus and others got more attention in the concerns! More attention in the Supplemental Material ) with a research focus and those of practitioners persists today mainstream clinicians compared. Skepticism about the extent to which different groups of mental-health professionals hold different beliefs about repressed memory wars of manuscript! Visit, having infinite potential Hawkbat Battalion among undergraduates believe about how memory works and how memory works and memory! Found high rates of belief in repressed memory had changed ( see Table 4 ) formats and editions Gore-Felton... Questions Concerning Change in their beliefs about memory often are the memory wars'' over whether repressed-memory testimony is admitted into evidence clinical-psychology... Spreading of activation: `` needle '' is more related for example are interrelated began to investigate beliefs memory! Over the past two decades false-memories, interpretations, memory-wars, recovered-memories society-denial... Drive the increased skepticism rightly says, World War II is still fought. ) Clone Trooper during the Clone wars seem to show an increase in appears... 2 presents clinical-psychology practitioners ’ beliefs about memory about 20 min to and.